Warring States Period

China has over 5000 years old history, but since from 221 BCE, it has been considered a unified Nation. Before the China unification, and after the peaceful and philosophical Spring and Autumn Period seven states fought for hegemony, territorial advantage, and dominance which is known as the Warring States period (481/403 BCE – 221 BCE). Much of this period was the second half of the Zhou dynasty under the rule of the Eastern Zhou. It was the Qin state conquered all the other rival states and unified Chinese state under the Qin dynasty. However, besides continuous warfare and countless casualties, the Warring States period saw significant advancement in society, philosophy, agriculture, arts and commerce, and set the foundations for the flourishing of Imperial China. Historians are not agreed upon the starting date of the Warring States period, and some believe its starting point was 481 BCE when the Lu chronicles end while others think the Warring period started in 403 BCE when the Zhou court officially recognized the three states; Zhao, Wei, and Han. Still, other historians chose the starting dates within that period such as Sima Qin; one of the most famous ancient Chinese historians believed the starting point was 475BCE.

The authority of the rulers of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (771-256 BCE) in the 5^th century was weak, and they were not able to exert much real power in their own country. They were no longer dominated in army terms, they were crumbling and were forced to depend on the military of other states, who on occasion took the opportunity to forward their own territorial claims. That’s why the Zhou rulers were forced to choose army leader from another state, the military leader of the Zhou army. The chosen commanders from other states had to swear loyalty to the Zhou feudal system, and that’s why they were given the title of Hegemon. Around 100 states had been combined into seven states by 4^th century BCE; Zhao, Yan, Wei, Qin, Qi, Han and Chu. Smaller states were there between these big states, but by that time they were so large that it was difficult for the one to absorb another. At that, there was a trend of building long defensive walls and borders, some of which were hundreds of kilometers long made of earth and stones. Some of these walls still exist today, such as the Qi wall located in Mulinnggun in Shandong province which is 4 meters high and 10 meters across in places.

The ruler of each state declared himself king and independent of the Zhou Empire. Each one was looking to expand their area, and that’s why they were often were competing over succession disputes caused by the common policy of intermarriage between different royal families. This competition among states caused continues war among them, which is known by the Warring States period. There were 358 wars between states between 535 and 286 BCE. Commanders led the vast military, and they all were competing for the prize of the victories state, which was the control of a unified China.

During the Warring States period, the large infantry armies based on universal conscription, the diffusion of iron swords and crossbows made warfare more deadly than in previous times. The battles were more effective because of large numbers of chariots and infantry. The war became more dynamic by training of more disciplined troops and espionage playing their part in victories. Before that time, the scale of the battles was short, and the army’s soldiers were less as compared to 200000 infantry in the Warring States period. The Chu, Qi, and Qin states each possessed a force soldiers close to one million men and a cavalry force of ten thousand. The battles lasted for months and even years with casualties in the tens of thousands. The military of states had to fight on multiple fronts, and their objectives were not only to occupy a new land but to destroy the army capacity of the enemy state.

This continuous warfare heavily affected ordinary people. The invasion of the military destroyed property and crops, males members of the society were expected to fight for the state. The last battle of that period which is called Changping was involved every male from the Qin people whose age was above 15 years. It was difficult for the formers to do farming and avoided military service. Those soldier who was fought well in the war were getting rewards such as in the Qin state if a solider cut the head of the enemy entitled the soldier for promotion and would get 5 acres of land. For every soldier and state, success in war became the only goal. The expectation on the commanders was another development in general warfare. They were longer able to claim a right of command through birth, and they were required to demonstrate their skills of the military. The strategy was necessary on the battlefield, but it became essential in siege warfare when the enemy chose to try and resist attack from within their well-fortified cities or when they protected their borders with watchtowers connected by defensive walls. 

The Rise of Qin

The Qin was one of the few states which remained to the Zhou, for instance, one of the rulers of Qin called Duke Xin, was rewarded with the title of Hegemon in 364 BCE for protecting the Zhou interests. Xiao, the successor of Duke Xin, was also rewarded with the same title in 343 BCE. Xiao took the services of the gifted advisor from the Wei state, who recognized the Qin state and made it even more powerful. Population and regions were divided in a way that was more easy to manage, and the collection of taxes was more effective. That was the strength of the Qin now that Zhou king gave a royal status to the ruler Huiwen in 326 BCE. The advantage of the Qin state was that it was located in a protective mountain range and it was on the peripheral states that it had more freedom to expend to the area that was not held by the rival Chinese state. They had a stable government based on the philosophy of legalism, with a local magistrate and officials to help run the provinces and armies. 

In 316 BCE the Qin conquered Shu state, this victory over Shu helped the Qin to occupy their productive agriculture lands which further enrich their state. The capital of Chu state also fell under the control of the Qin 278 BCE. The Qin great victory was won against the Zhao state after fighting three years-long battle. The Qin was unstoppable, In 256 CE the Zhou king died, and no one was appointed, at that time Qin conquered the rest of the other states. Qin defeated Han in 230 BCE, Wei in 225 BCE, Zhao in 228 BCE, Chu in 223 BCE. After the victory against Qi and Yan, the Qin state was able to unify the Chinese empire throughout China. The king of Qin, Zheng, awarded himself the title of the first emperor.

The Cultural Developments of Warring States

War, battles, and bloodsheds dominated the Warring States period, but there were some cultural developments too. The need to produce technological advance weapons, better than the weapons of the enemy led to better techniques, tools and craft skills, especially the use of iron and metalworking. Artists were able to produce more skilled artwork, and they master materials such as jade and lacquer, which difficult and time-consuming. A large number of soldiers needed a massive amount of food supplies which were met from the improved agriculture. The use of more land, better tools made from iron and better irrigation system helped to increase agricultural productivity. Cities grew in size; the ruler's palaces became more extravagant, marketplaces expanded, the area dedicated to the industries where goods as weapons and pottery could be mass-produced up.

As new areas conquered and alliances were formed, so too, trade developed and with it a wealthy middle class of state administrators and merchants. Society moved from a strict system where one’s position was defined by birth. Money was introduced in the shape of bronze coins with a distinctive central hole and became known as knife-money. There was now the possibility to acquire status and wealth for those with talent. Thoughts developed too, the wars and battles forced intellectuals to reexamine their views on the world and the role of religion and God in human affairs. Poets and writers attempted to explain and justify the events of the Warring States period and their terrible effects on ordinary people.

The philosophers of the Warring state

Three prominent belief systems; Confucianism, Daoism, and legalism emerged during the Warring States period of Chinese history. Confucianism is a philosophy of social order, moral uprightness, and filial responsibility. Daoism was a philosophy of universal harmony that advised its practitioners not to get involved in worldly affairs. While legalism is a theory of autocratic, harsh sentences, and centralized rules. These three philosophies greatly influenced early Chinese empires while some of the states adapted as official state ideologies. 

Confucianism

At the end of the Zhou dynasty, as feudal lords fought over land, there was a government minister and scholar by the name of ‘Kong Fuzi’ later known by Confucius by 16^th century Jesuits. Confucius taught the classics; the ancient Zhou-era the book of Changes, the Book of Odes, and Book of Documents through which he gained students and followers. Confucius was mainly concerned about the class of leaders and their ethical and intellectual cultivation. He also wanted to rethink the notion of class, status, and hierarchy in society. The books that Confucius taught were already ancient in Confucius's time. The respect that Confucius gave them is perfectly in-line with his philosophy of filial piety-respect for your parents or elders. In this sense, Confucianism is a philosophy of respect for the past and its traditions. Many of the ideas which are attributed to Confucius had likely already been in circulation in Chinese society. Few of Confucius’s original thoughts survive, The Analects of Confucius, which means his students and followers composed the collected sayings of Confucius based on conversations they had with him.

Confucius urged ethical and upright behavior, framing a responsible government as a moral duty similar to parenthood. He believed that providing an excellent example of moral conduct to the people would spur them to act within the confines of the law. Confucianism stressed the idea that people could be useful if they followed moral instruction and performed rituals that worshipped the gods and honored the ancestral dead. In a time of war and upheaval, the Confucianists believed only careful maintenance of the old traditions could support societal unity. Many Chinese rulers implemented Confucian principles. For instance, Emperor Wu of Han encouraged hierarchical social structures based on Confucian principles, which he believed would bring about greater social harmony throughout Chinese society.

Legalism

Legalism encourages the notion of strict social order and law, and harsh collective sentences, ideas that influenced Qin Shi Huangdi’d centralized rule. If someone wants to understand Legalism, they have to go back to Shang Yang times, who was a reformist statesman during the Qin state. Shang Yang's understanding of humanity was considerably different from that of Confucius. Shang Yang was born in 390 BCE, 169 years before the reign of Qin Shi Huangdi. In The Book of Lard Shang, he recommended harsh punishments for light offenses; he reasoned that if petty crimes were met with heavy sentences, more serious crime would be deterred. Under the Shang Yang government, the people of Qin state had severely constrained lives; peasants could not leave their villages without travel permits; farmers who did not meet growing quotas were forced into slave labor, and minor crimes were punished with severity. 

The Qin state weakened the power of its aristocracy and combined power and land under one royal family. This change in the structure of power led the ruler of Qin, rather than feudal lords, to directly control the lives of people. Trade with other states was declined, the law focused on farmer activities, military services, and agriculture. The decline in the power of local aristocrats led to the formation of an administrative system that answered directly to the head of Qin. The administrators, bureaucrats, in such a system, were accountable to the rulers.

In the third century BCE, during the time of King Zheng’s rules, an intense focused on recruiting troops, and increasing agricultural production had turned the Qin state into a military powerhouse. King Zheng began a nine-year campaign to overcome his neighbors. In 221 BCE, when he defeated his enemies, Zheng declared himself Qin Shi Huangdi which means the first Emperor of Qin. The new emperor planned to create an empire-wide administrative bureaucracy modeled based on his home state. China was divided into regional administrative zones, under the watchful eyes of Qin Empire officials. Under Qin Shi Huangdi, ordinary people were recruited into forced labor and punished or disfigured for petty infractions.

Daoism

Confucianism and legalism both required strict obedience to principles, whether they were enforcement-based legalist one or shame-based Confucian Ones. In contrast, Daoism recognizes no law but the Dao, or the way. In the book called Dao De Jing, Laozi; the founder of Daoism explain Dao means; the one who knows the Dao does not speak, the one who speaks does not know the Dao. The intelligent man shuts his mouth and closes his gates. In this way, the Dao was often labeled as resilient to description or definition; a nameless, shapeless, but also a creative force in the universe. This may appear like a contradiction, but it makes sense when we consider the fact that Daoism is a kind of anti-activism; it asserts that the best life is one of willful ignorance, seeking no knowledge and avoiding involvement in politics or public life. 

Daoists were not convinced that governments could generate harmony and social order. Instead, they concentrated their attention on individual behavior and the ways it might be adapted to be in harmony with the Dao. The Dao is intended to characterize the natural order of the universe, and Daoism instructs that human beings are the only species that violate the Dao. Rather than pursue to raise oneself through words and deeds, Daoists cultivated a practice of Wu Wei, giving in to thoughtless, effortless, and natural action.

The Dao is not a goal to vigorously pursue, but rather a state to be approached through not approaching it. Daoism believes that rather than involve yourself with affairs of state, it is better to keep your lives and actions simple. Silence is appreciated above words; inaction and stoicism appreciated the above action and outrage. Daoism believes that if all people ceased striving for glory, attainment, and riches, there would be no enemy, no war, and lesser suffering. Daoism philosophy influenced many elements of later Chinese philosophy, especially Chinese Buddhism.

Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism all played a role during the Warring States period. These three influenced the styles of the Chinese government throughout the Qin ascendancy, the Han dynasty, and beyond, becoming more or less influential depending on which dynasty and power. They also heavily influenced social structures.

Tours of the Warring States Period Sites

The Terracotta Warriors and other sites in Xi’an Province are the places to learn about the Qin state and Qin Dynasty. The Hubei Provincial Museum in Wuhan has the most extensive collection of artifacts from the Warring States period. Also visit the Museum of the Zhou Imperial Carriages in Luoyang, Zhou Dynasty Capital in the Warring States period.