Taoism in China

The Start of Taoism

In ancient times, there was much talk among the people about a “God” who was able to drive away all devils and monsters. People used to have his pictures painted and put them on the door. The “God” is called Master Zhang (张天师, Zhang Tianshi) by most people. His real name is in fact “张陵” (Zhang ling), the founder of Taoism.

“张陵” or “张道陵” (Zhang Daoling) was once an official. He had a close study of many Confucian classics and then went to the Sichuan Province to cultivate himself. He wrote a book there, which he claimed to be the accounts of the teachings told to him by “太上老君” (Taishanglaojun, Most Exalted Lord Lao). He soon formed his school of religion and attracted many people. He claimed then that those who wished to join his religion had to hand over five “斗” (dou, decaliter—a measurement of rice in ancient China) of rice. Therefore, his school of religion was also called “米道” (mi dao), popular between 125 A. D. and 144 A. D. “米道” used to collect money by practicing “witchcraft,” drawing magic figures of incantations for people to ward off evil. The collected money was then used for public services such as repairing roads, building bridges and providing food or lodging for the poor. The good deeds done by the members of the religion received a warm welcome from the local people.

Another school of Taoism is called “太平道” (taiping dao, 172 A. D.—178 A. D.), whose founder is “张角” (Zhangjiao) and his two younger brothers. They were also leaders of the following peasant rebellion. “张角” and his disciples helped the sick people with their magic figure drawing and at the same time, propagated their religious belief. Within ten years, the disciples following “张角” reached the number of 100,000. “张角” divided his people into different groups in different parts of the country, each group headed by a local leader. In this way, 张角 was able to launch the famous Yellow Turban Rebellion against the Eastern Han Dynasty. When the uprising was suppressed, the school of Taoism—“太平道”—was still spreading secretly among the masses.

The Taoism was a religion born and developed in China. Although greatly influenced by Buddhism, Taoism contradicts Buddhism in some way. In history, Taoism and Buddhism have always been competing. In the meantime, they are also interacting and intermingled with each other.

Elixir of Life

Taoism believes that people can live forever and never grow old only after they have taken the Elixir of Life (仙丹, xiandan). As early as in the Warring States in history, emperors of Chu (楚国, Chuguo) and Qinshihuang (秦始皇, emperor of the Qin Dynasty) had sent people to look for the Elixir of Life but their efforts were all in vain. In the meantime, many Taoist priests had tried to take the pills of immortality themselves.

In reality, pills of immortality do not exist in this world. Many materials which were believed to be the ingredients of elixirs are merely rare plants which not many people have the opportunity to see, such as Ginseng. The Taoist Priests, then, used metals such as gold, silver, mercury, lead, and arsonium, etc., to make what they believed to be elixirs in the furnace. Fortunately, the general public cannot afford such pills, which are in fact harmful to people’s health. In history, emperors, ministers, and aristocrats had occasionally been poisoned to death by the pills. “李世民” (Lishimin), an emperor of the Tang Dynasty, for example, died because of the poisonous pills he ordered people to make.

From another perspective, the priests’ practice of pill-making has been useful and instructive for them to gain knowledge of a chemical experiments. For example, priests back then found that gold can be dissolved in mercury, cyanide in aqueous solutions, and many other solutions.

Most Exalted Lord Lao and True Man of Nan Hua

In the Main Hall of many Taoism temples, “three Gods” are usually enshrined and worshipped in the most prominent place. The three gods are called “三清” (sanqing), the supreme gods in Taoism. One of them is called “太上老君” (Taishanglaojun, Most Exalted Lord Lao), the one who wants to burn Monkey King Sun (孙悟空, Sunwukong) to ash in the novel Journey to the West.

“太上老君” is the respectful address to “老子” (Laozi). In history, “老 子” is surnamed “李” (Li) and the given name is “耳” (Er). Born in the State of Chu (Shandong Province today), “老子” is a thinker and the founder of the School of Taoism in the Spring and Autumn Period. Even 600 to 700 years after his death, he is respectfully held up as the father of Taoism and is loved and respected by rulers of each dynasty in China.

“老子” is in fact not related to Taoism. But for three reasons he has been considered the father of Taoism. First, Taoist beliefs are in agreement with the book The Classics of the Virtue of the Tao (道德经, Daodejing) by Laozi. Second, when the two religions competed for members, Taoism always wanted to enjoy a higher status in the religious world than Buddhism and Confucianism, as Laozi is much older than Sakyamuni or Confucius. Third, according to many legends, the thoughts and actions of Laozi are in conformity with the teachings of the Taoist gods. According to the Records of the Historian (史记, Shiji) by Sima Qian (司马迁, of Han Dynasty), Laozi lived as long as 200 years and wrote his famous book at his later years when he gave up his official life.

Another prominent figure in Taoism is “庄子” (Zhuangzi), respectfully addressed as “南华真人” (Nanhua zhenren, True Man Nanhua). “庄子” is surnamed “周” (Zhou), and his given name is “子休” (Zixiu). He is a philosopher in the Warring States and the founder of the Zhuangzi School of Taoism. In his lifetime, he carried on and developed Laozi’s theory and gave definitions of “真人” (zhenren) and “圣人” (shengren)—people who never eat human food but fly drifting around the world happily and live forever and never grow old. The title of “南华真人” was bestowed on him by an Emperor of the Tang Dynasty.

The Jade Emperor and the Lady Queen Mother

“玉皇大帝” (Yuhuang Dadi, the Jade Emperor) and “王母娘娘” (Wangmu Niangniang, the Lady Queen Mother) in fact do not enjoy particular high status in Taoism as people think them do, because “三清” is the supreme gods and enjoy a higher status than them. Influenced by numerous literary works, the notion that “玉帝” and “王母” being the supreme gods of Taoism is firmly inscribed in the minds of people.

“王母娘娘,” formally called “西王母” (Xiwangmu), is originally a woman chief of a primitive tribe in Mount Kunlun (昆仑山, Kunlunshan). The earliest description of her is rather strange: she has a man’s head, a tiger’s teeth, and tail, with long and disorderly hair adorned with jade ornaments. During the Warring States, she was described as a god, but with a body of half man and half god. It is not until later that she was described as a beautiful lady and was much respected by the people.

When “西王母” became a goddess, people started to think that she should have a spouse. Then “东王公” (Dongwanggong), head of men god, was chosen as the husband of her. After a period of time, “东王公” became the king, called “玉皇大帝,” and the title “西王母” was then changed to “王母娘娘.”

The Eight Immortals

Immortals (神仙, shenxian) are highly respected and worshiped in Taoism. The “Eight Immortals” are particularly popular among the people. Although most of them are mythical figures, some are based on true figures in history.

The Jade Emperor and Most Exalted Lord Lao are stern and forbidding in the eyes of the general public, so Taoism has “the Eight Immortals”—kindly and approachable gods. They are all ordinary people, young or old, quiet or wild, poor or rich. They are masters of different trades. For example, “吕洞宾” (Lv Dongbin) is the master of haircutting; “铁拐李” (Tie Guaili) is the father of begging; apart from “蓝采和” (Lan Caihe) and “何仙姑” (He Xiangu), “汉钟离” (Han Zhongli), “张果老” (Zhang Guolao), “韩湘子” (Han Xiangzi) and “曹国舅” (Cao Guojiu), the other two are founders of different sect of Taoism. They often help people who are suffering and punish evil; they punish the rich and help the poor. Because they are so close and connected to people, their stories have been widely spread on the land of the Chinese nation.

Stories about “the Eight Immortals” are first recorded in the Tang Dynasty, and more detailed descriptions are from the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. But the story of “the Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea” (八仙过海, baxian guohai) have been talked about long before the full stories of the Eight Immortals were recorded. On March 15th, the Eight Immortals were invited to a Peony Party on an island. On their way back home, they had to go across the East Sea. During the process, each of them used his or her special power. But unexpectedly, “蓝采和” was seized and taken down to the sea by the son of the Dragon King, which greatly annoyed the Eight. They fought with the Dragon Soldiers and won a complete success. “吕洞宾” was so annoyed that he nearly vaporized the East Sea with his magic weapon—a fire gourd. Finally, Buddha “如来” intervened and reconciled the two parties, and then the Eight and the Dragons were friends again.

The Three Stars—Fortune, Wealth and Longevity

When Chinese congratulate an elderly on his or her birthday, they will often say “福如东海，寿比南山” (furudonghai, shoubi nanshan, wish you long life and happiness!). In Taoism, “福 (fu, Fortune), 禄 (lu, Wealth), 寿 (shou, longevity)” is the Three Gods symbolizing auspiciousness in Chinese folklore. So “三星高照” (sanxing gaozhao, the Three Stars are in the ascendant) becomes an auspicious saying of the Chinese people.

The Three Stars are often seen in paintings during festivals. In the picture, the Fortune Star is always seen holding the word “福” in his hand, the Wealth Star holding gold, and the Longevity Star having a birthday peach in his right hand and a walking stick in his left hand.

The Fortune bestows happiness on people according to whether people have done something good and how much good deeds did he do. Ancient Chinese believe when the Year Star (岁星, suixing, or 木星, muxing) shines, people will have a fortune. There are many stories about the origin of the Fortune Star, among which one story is widely spread. It is said that during the Tang Dynasty dwarfs in the Dao Zhou County were routinely sent to the imperial court to entertain the officials. When “阳城” (Yang Cheng) became the new governor of the Dao Zhou County, he abolished the practice. Therefore, the people here are very grateful for his becoming the governor. Later, they regarded him as the incarnation of fortune.

Wealth can increase people’s luck in making money. The God of Wealth (财神, Caishen)—“赵公明” (Zhao Gongming)—is perhaps the most popular god among the people. According to various portraits of the God of Wealth, he has a black face, a long beard, and an iron whip in his hand. Zhao usually wears an iron cap, and sits on a tiger. Before he became the God of Wealth, he is said to be a civil servant in the imperial court.

The God of Longevity is also called the South Pole Old Man (南极老人, Nanji Laoren). Ancient Chinese believe that the South Pole Star can foretell the fate of the nation and prolong people’s lives. In many of his portraits, he is hale and hearty, with white hair and a ruddy complexion.