Chinese Seals

Chinese Seals

The utilization of seals in old occasions as validation of people, foundations or authorities was not unique to China: Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt and the Indus River Valley every single utilized seal at a beginning period of history. Since the early type of Chinese seals appeared in the late Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C. - 1100 B.C.), the particular elements of seals and the sealed framework have developed thoroughly, and the evolution and utilization of seals have never ceased. Another characteristic of Chinese seals is the use of Chinese characters as symbols of meanings. On the same guideline from the development of Chinese calligraphy, the aesthetic component of the characters combined with the practical element of signifying importance created a free however mainly Chinese fine art. Thus, however, seals as a method for confirmation steadily blurred from utilizing, the craft of seal etching established and prospered with awesome imperativeness.

Overview of Seals in the East and the West in Antiquity

The creation of seals came as a natural result of an early human society which became more and more complex. Despite its small physical form, the seal emerged alongside early civilizations in many regions and for a long time played an indispensable role as tangible evidence of identity, credit, and authority in person-to-person and person-to-society relations. The mechanisms gave rise to seals irrespective of the region; however, there was significant variation in the specific forms and directions of their development. Therefore, for the features and status of Chinese seals to be truly understood, these things must be considered against the general background of the generation and development of seals in the ancient world and subject to comparative examination.

1, Definition of Seals

Before discussing seals in the East and the West in antiquity, we should first define what we mean by “seal” (印章) specified in this book.

The concept of “seal” one shaped by customs over a long period in Chinese society, has two elements: The first is xi yin (玺印, from now on referred to as "seal"). In China, this term generally refers to official and private seals used as a means of authentication from pre-Qin Dynasty times (usually referring to the periods of the Spring and Autumn (770-476 B.C.). And the Warring States Period (475-221 B.C.) before the founding of the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C.-206 B.C.) right up to the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911); and are therefore also referred to as “Gu Xi Yin” (古玺印, ancient Xi seal). However, it is customary to refer to seals made in pre-Qin times individually as (Gu Xi) (古玺, ancient seal). The second element is Zhuan Ke (篆刻 engravings) which is closer to Yin Mo (印模, die), although they could have the same functions as those described above.

After the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing dynasties, they evolved away from being purely a means of authentication and became an art form in their own right. So Chinese seals include two elements with historical connections and mutual influences regarding style but which are different. Seal engraving goes far beyond the general concept of what is meant by “seal” in the West.

In ancient Chinese books, there is a clear definition of seal: According to the Etymology of Chinese Characters (说文解字), the first systematic dictionary in China, compiled around the early second century by Xu Shen, “A seal is what an official holds for authentication in government affairs” and “a seal is a means of authentication.” The original form of the Chinese character xi (玺), an associative compound word, resembles the scene when a seal is stamped. In the Etymology of Chinese Characters, a Xi is defined as “seal of a king” according to contemporary political systems. Although Xi and Yin were both seals, they served different purposes at the time.

Authentication is the essential character of what China terms Xi and Yin. However, when the actual seals are considered, things are not that simple. Even in the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods when Xi and Yin were slightly mature as a means of authentication, there also existed some other types of seals such as Yin Mo die. Traditional Chinese understanding did not exclude them from the category of seals, which seems somewhat illogical.

The concept of the seal in the West as defined in the Merriam- Webster Collegiate Dictionary is fundamentally no different in definition to the ancient Chinese. It is a means of authentication. But some meanings in the Western definition are broader and have no equivalents in China. Conversely, some types of Chinese seals cannot be included within the terms of the Western interpretation, which causes specific difficulties for people in the West studying the history of Chinese seals.

A seal is an object of “socially established functions.” Certain marks on seals are used to represent personal credit or authority and were used widely in some areas of the East in ancient times.

The clan emblem was used as a symbol of a clan in ancient clan society. It also had an authentication function. So it is reasonable to consider it as a primitive or embryonic form of a seal, but still far from possessing the features of a seal at the mature stage. Seals did not appear as a complete means of authentication until the completion of the process where villages became cities and then states, until the economic system transformed, and until the social structure based on blood ties evolved into a complex class structure. Therefore, those objects included in the study of early-stage seals might still be in a transitional condition.

Therefore, in the study of primitive seals, it may not be easy to distinguish engraved dies from seals with an authentication function. Certain objects whose function as authentication symbols has not been proven have been classified in research by Western scholars as seals. However, some Chinese researchers do not agree to treat these borderline objects as seals because they cannot be clearly defined even if their forms do have some features identical to seals. Differences in the Chinese and Western standards for identifying seals lead in turn to different conclusions in the comparative study of the origins of seals.

The author proposes a “proto-seal stage” and to regard as “pre-seals” such objects which possess certain characteristics of social function and are similar to seals in form but whose functions are as yet proven. That is to say; there was a stage of fuzzy boundaries and gradual change before the mature seal came into being. Under such a proposition, the standards for understanding the early stages of Chinese seals and foreign seals can converge at a certain point. Therefore, the author gives the following definition of “seal” in the general sense:

An object used to make an imprint of particular words or graphic marks for presentation and examination, and whose primary purpose is as a fixed means of authentication.

The definition is consistent with the actual situation of seals used in China and provides a good base for comparison when ancient seals of other regions are examined. However, in this book, the concept of seal refers both to Chinese Xi Yin seals and Zhuan Ke engraved seals. It includes both concepts in the broad sense and thus is different from merely the concept of Xi Yin seal. The reason for this lies in existence, within the Chinese seal system, of the unique phenomenon of the seal engraving as an art form.

2, Seal Systems at Their Early Stage in the East and West

Seals have been used widely at different times on the Eurasian continent. According to current evidence, the significant places of origin of early seals are the regions where major river civilizations originated, i,e, the Tigris and Euphrates, Nile, Indus and Yellow River basins and their peripheral areas. So the ancient Orient is where seals first entered the social life of humankind. Starting from these places, seal culture-expanded both eastwards and westwards. By medieval times, seals had spread to the majority of regions in Eurasia. But no seal use appeared in the Americas, nor in regions of Africa other than Egypt, during these early times.

Mesopotamia, The earliest civilization in western Asia, originated in Mesopotamia, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The history of seal used in western Asia started relatively early. Dies have been excavated from Neolithic ruins here. For example, the small pottery objects excavated at a relic site at Sataihuyuk in Anatolia, Turkey and traced back to 6500-6000 B.C. are considered a type of die. At the Arpachiyah relic site in the north of Mesopotamia, relics of clay pieces with imprinted graphics were discovered. These clay pieces have perforations and can be tied with cords through longitudinal axes. Researchers contend that these clay mark for goods. From the Hassuna relic site (5800 B.C.-5300 B.C.), objects called “pressed seal” with oblique checkered patterns were excavated. By the Gawra times (c. 3500 B.C.-2900 B.C.), animal and human figures were appearing in the patterns on seals. In southern Mesopotamia, cylinder seals appeared in the late Uruk times. In the temple area of the ancient Uruk City relics unearthed include large quantities of trade documents on clay boards bearing marks made with cylinder seals (Fig.7). These seals were used to record and seal goods, and to mark the owners, thus authenticating the identity of the owner and relevant action.

These objects are also regarded as having religious or sorcerous functions as amulets or talismans. From tombs of the early Babylonian Dynastic Period (2900 B.C.-2750 B.C.), cylinder seals worn by the tomb owners have been excavated. Later, seal use became even more wide-spread in Mesopotamia; as they came to take on religious significance, identification and administration functions. Epigraphs began to appear on the seals, and the designs and patterns became more complex, including such motifs as human figures and scenes from life. Themes such as birds, animals, and images of various gods also made an appearance, carved in a realistic and refined style. The predominant material used for the seals was stone.

Cylinder seals were used in Mesopotamia for a very long time, all the way through the Assyrian Period, the Neo-Babylonian Period and the Persian Cultural Period. However, after parchment became a popular writing material, cylinder seals were gradually replaced by flat-press seals around the time of Alexander the Great.

Northern Part of West Asia and Central Asia Between the 15th century B.C. and the 12th century B.C. the Hittites built a mighty empire in the northern part of West Asia. The first seal imprints found here were Mesopotamian patterns from cylinder seals. Later Anatolian-style flat-press seals took the place of cylinder seals. At the relic site of a workshop in a Hittusha Palace, where large amounts of clay-board documents were unearthed, people discovered flat- press seals carved with animal patterns. In later periods hieroglyphic inscriptions became popular. Most of them represented the names of the seal owners.

There were also words such as happiness and “longevity.” The seals were mainly impressed into sealing clay. Some seal- ing-clay pieces excavated from the relics of the Hattusa Palace have cord marks on them. Seals were also impressed into sealing clay to seal doors. These customs can also be found in ancient China. Clay- board documents of this period bear imprints of the emperors’ seals. The use of seals is also located on contracts and documents with foreign parties. The most distinctive seals are a silver imperial seal of Hattusili III and a stone seal with a portrait of Mursili II carved on it, both unearthed from the Ras Shamra relic site in Syria. The two seals are characterized by the image of the emperor surrounded by eulogistic words. Early Hittite seals are mainly made of stone. Later ones are of colorful materials such as agate, lazurite, amethyst, and chalcedony. Only a small proportion are made of metal.

In ancient China, Pathia (present-day northeastern Iran) and Bactria (now part of eastern Afghanistan) were called “the Western Regions.” Seals and sealing-clay pieces — relics of seal use during the period from 3,000 B.C. to 1,000 B.C.— have been excavated from ancient relic sites in these regions. Early Bactrian seals were made of stone or ceramics. Simple patterns were carved on the seals. Around the 6th century, B.C. cylinder seals and signet rings appeared in the Bactrian region, but Bactrian features disappeared from seals during the Greco-Bactrian Period. The relics showing Parthian seal use are the sealing-clay pieces unearthed in the Hecatompylos relic site in northern Iran (500 B.C.- 300 B.C.) and the Nisa (100 B.C.-200 B.C.) in the southern area of the former Soviet Union. The pieces bear imprints of cylinder seals and signet rings. The themes on sealing-clay pieces unearthed in the Nisa relic site include geometric graphics and pictures of various animals, fighting warriors, and gods, their style showing Hellenistic influence.

The Elamites who lived in the southwest of Iran in about 3000 B.C. had trade links with the Sumerians. They built the city-state of Susa, and Sumerian seal culture was introduced.

A bronze seal discovered in southern Turkmenistan is believed to be a belt- hung amulet as well as being used to make imprints on sealing clay. Sariahidy, the archaeologist responsible for the excavation of relevant relic site, believed that it was a sign of collective ownership of a family or a clan. The same type of bronze seal was also excavated from the Mundigak relic site in the south of Afghanistan. Similar ones have been found in the Niya relic site in Xinjiang, China. The author believes that further research is needed into their historical periods.

Ancient Egypt Cylinder seals were found in the tombs of the kings in the Naqada Period. Researchers generally believe them to have come from Mesopotamia. The earliest Egyptian hieroglyphics were also found on cylinder seals. Egyptians started making cylinder seals from the period of Dynasty I (3100 B.C.-2890 B.C.). Most of these seals had hieroglyphics carved on them, including the names of kings, noble ranks, official positions and the names of persons. There were also words of god worship or prayers for Felicity or longevity. Excavated sealing-clay pieces prove that the seals had the functions of sealing containers. Moreover, these pieces bear the impression of the Pharaohs, seals.

With the spread of papyrus documents, the technical constraints of cylinder seals became apparent; under the influence of Syria and other countries, between Dynasty IV and Dynasty X (2345 B.C.-2040 B.C.), flat seals or “button” seal and scarab-shaped seals replaced cylinder seals. Scarab seals became somewhat popular as they could be easily used for sealing small containers. A sealing-clay piece with the imprint of a scarab seal found on the upper part of the wine pot excavated from the relic site of the palace of Amenhotep III in Thebes indicated that the grapes came from the region of Canopus in the west of Egypt. Physical evidence of seal used on papyrus documents was also found in the relics. Personal names appeared on scarab seals only in later periods. This indicates that these seals have a less definite function in showing the unique identity of a person. One of the primary functions of ancient Egyptian seals was that of an amulet, including those symbolizing some aspects of nature or divine power. With a strong folk religion feel to them, these seals were also used as funerary objects.

The materials of Egyptian cylinder seals and scarab seals were made mainly of talc and other stone materials. Ivory and metal seals were rare. In the latter part of this period scarab seals made of colorful and valuable materials such as gold, silver, copper, lazurite, cornelian and crystal started to emerge. It was also around that time that official seals came to have the character of conferring authority.

The scarab seals were popular around Dynasty VII and used for the longest time in ancient Egyptian history. This is a notable feature of the ancient Egyptian seals. In the later period of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt gradually entered the age of signet rings.

Indus River Valley Indus River Valley civilization flourished in the northwest of the South Asian Subcontinent from around 3000 B.C. to 2000 B.C. The earliest objects discovered, similar to seals in ancient India, dating back to the period from about 3745 B.C. to 2500 B.C. Stone and bone objects with geometric graphics carved on them were found in the cultural layers II and III in the Mundigat relic site. Over 2,000 Indian style seals have been discovered, most of them from the Mohenjo-Daro relic site. These are flat-press seals. The material used for the seal knobs are mostly talc and occasionally copper or agate. The knobs have tie holes for cords. The imprint face of the seals is mostly square, with sides about 2-5 cm centimeters in length. The designs on them include bulls, elephants, and tigers as well as animals and people in combination. The graphics display very sophisticated carving techniques. On the top of each graphic is usually a line of words indicating the names of an official position, a clan, a family lineage, a person or a place. Some researchers believe that animals represent clan emblems or deity images since the amulet function was considered an important property of ancient Indian seals. Sealing-clay pieces were also excavated from the Mohenjo-Daro relic site, which indicates that Indian seals had the function of sealing stored goods.

Sealing-clay pieces with imprints from Indian civilization have been excavated from a warehouse relic site in Lothal which was built in about 2300 B.C. On the back of these clay pieces are marks of cloth and twisted ropes. Some even have fragments of bamboo or aloe attached to them. The ancient Indian words on the graphics are clear and discernible. Some scholars speculate that these are names or endorsements of the deliverers or marks imprinted to certify quality and place of origin.

During the time of the Maurya Dynasty and later the Kushan Empire, seal culture became popular once again and used seals on documents also became important. On the Kharosthi inscribed wooden tablets excavated from the Niya relic site in Xinjiang, two types of seal imprints appear, one of them being from official seals bearing Chinese characters. For example, after the Jin Dynasty, the sealing-clay pieces imprinted “Commandant of Shanshan Kingdom” came from seals of the garrison officer in the kingdom of Shanshan. These seals correspond stylistically with those of the Northern Wei Dynasty (386- 534) or the Sixteen Kingdoms of Five Ethnic Groups (304-439). In 445，the Northern Wei waged a campaign against the kingdom of Shanshan. Later it established there a government office for an administrative area similar to a prefecture or a county. So, one may reasonably infer that the “Commandant of Shanshan Kingdom” seal conferred during this period. The other type has imprints of Kushan or Persian seals. However, the broad inscribed wooden tablets on which the imprints were made and the sealing method both originated from systems in ancient China in the period of the Wei and Jin dynasties. This indicates that communications between different cultures in Niya, an ancient city on the Silk Road, can be traced back to very ancient times.

The Persian Gulf The seals discovered in 1922 in the relic site of the ancient city of Ur in the south of Mesopotamia were made during the period 2300 B.C. to 1800 B.C. Besides many cylinder seals, there were also round stone seals that had never appeared in Mesopotamia. The knobs of these seals are hemispherical. They are of the same type as round seals unearthed in Bahrain. Both have images of zebu cattle carved on them. Five of the Ur round seals are carved with Indian- style script. (Fig. 20) This indicates that the Persian Gulf area used to be a place connecting trade between Mesopotamia and ancient India.

Aegean Sea Region This Mediterranean region lies between the continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa and has long connections with ancient eastern civilizations. The culture and art in this region have had influences from Egypt and Mesopotamia. Large quantities of seals and sealing-clay pieces have been excavated from the relic site of the Palace of Minos near Iraklion, the capital of Crete. These were made during the period from 2600 B.C to 1200 B.C. The materials include bone, ivory, talc, carnelian, and agate. The knobs are mostly animal figures. There are both flat-press seals and cylinder seals in a variety of forms. The most frequent themes of the graphics on the seals are animals, especially those in the latter half of the period. These include the images of dolphins, flying fish, cuttlefish, etc., reflecting the characteristics of marine culture. Of all the early seals in different regions in the world, the seals of the Minoan civilization stand out because of their diverse typology. The sealing-clay pieces of this civilization were used on cords tied to containers such as pots and boxes as markers indicating the ownership or delivery of goods. At the peak of the Mycenaean civilization (2000 B.C.-1200 B.C. which succeeded Minoan civilization), signet rings appeared on Crete. These rings have luxuriant carvings, a possible influence from Egypt. In the Golden Age of ancient Greek civilization, Egyptian-style signet rings started to be made locally. These had the same use of sealing and marking as Egyptian ones. But the scarab signer rings were used only as jewelry and did not have the same religious significance as in Egypt. The imprint part of the seals has images of various animals and the gods of Greek mythology. The materials include various beautiful precious stones such as chalcedony, agate, and crystal.

During the Classical Age of Ancient Greece (450 B.C.-330 B.C.) pictures of daily life also became seal-face themes. Some signet rings are carved with the names of the seal owner and seal maker, which gives them clearer ring characteristics. As yet there have been no discoveries of sealing-clay pieces contemporaneous with these rings, so it is still impossible to tell whether they were used as seals.

Ancient Greece and Rome, The Etruscans, started to use Greek-style scarab signet rings from the second half of the 6th century B.C. The images and names carved on the imprinting part of the seals are heroes of Greek mythology and the Trojan War. (Fig. 21, 22) In the 3rd century B.C. the Romans started to distinguish the status of nobles, military, citizens and slaves with rings made of gold, silver, and iron and formed a strict hierarchical structure. Beautiful and rare precious stones such as carnelian were often embedded on the imprinting part of the rings. Portraits were the main theme of ancient Roman seals. Carved images of Venus, the Sphinx and Alexander the Great all occur. From a cellar owned by a Roman merchant around 2nd century B.C. about 500 sealing-clay pieces were excavated, evidencing that seal imprints were used on containers in ancient Roman times. Traces of seal imprints were found on tablets unearthed from the remains of Pompeii. These documents were mainly receipts. One of them has traces of an imprinted private seal in the place for the witness name. It is an important piece of evidence about the ways and scope of seal used in this period.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the tradition of seal use disappeared for some time in the ancient Western world. Roman signet rings were used in Europe in the Medieval Ages. And this is the period in which heraldry emerged. This did not have the same function as seals but became the early form of European seals. The use of sealing wax, a new way of seal use, also developed in this period. Later it developed further, using colored materials. Also in this period, signatures and calligraphic ciphers or tughra became a common form of authentication. The social function of early seals as a means of authentication gradually became obsolete in Europe.

3, Seals of Ancient China and East Asia

When viewed from the bronze seals emerging around 1300 B.C., after the Shang Dynasty moved its capital of Yin, early forms of Chinese seals already displayed differences in material compared with other seal systems that may have originated from stone seals. Chinese researchers have proposed the existence of a pottery seal stage, but there is insufficient evidence to support this assertion. The material system of Chinese seals remained dominated by bronze. About the use of dies or seals, in the regions discussed above there were two main forms, namely:

1) cylinder seals, which were widespread at different times in places of seal origin other than China;

2) flat-press seals, or press seals, which were also used in northern Mesopotamia, the north of West Asia, ancient Egypt and the Indus River Valley.

Cylinder seals were never created in China since, in contrast to the clay board materials used in Egypt and other regions, ancient China generally used animal bones, bamboo and wooden slips for written records. Chinese characters were always the dominant content of Chinese seals and, closely related to this feature, relief word carving appeared first on the imprinting part of seals. Subsequently, at the peak of seal used during the Warring States Period, intaglio word carvings also became popular. This situation was also different from the domination of intaglio seals in other regions.

Sometime after the 4th century A.D., Chinese seal culture together with Chinese characters spread eastward from the Chinese mainland and found acceptance on the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Archipelago. Seals have been found in Korea dating from when the peninsula was united under the Kingdom of Silla. It was also from this time that Koreans had their local seal system. The characters on seals gradually became different from Chinese characters and the forms of the seals also evolved.

In the Nara Period in Japan (710- 794), the official seal system of the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the seal production style were introduced to the Ritsuryosei centralized political system, owing to the exchange activities of the Sentoushi envoys to the Tang-dynasty China; they subsequently became important instruments in state administration. During the Nara and Heian (794-1195) periods, official seals were subject to a very rigorous production system, mainly because of the Tang Dynasty's influence. Private seals also became common in society at this time, and the use of official and private seals has enjoyed a long and stable status in Japanese society since then.

Furthermore, owing to existing connections in history, geography, and early written language systems, the Korean Peninsula and Japan also quickly accepted Zhuan ke、the art of seal engraving, once it originated in China in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Artists in both regions borrowed from Chinese seal engraving techniques and built on these to create their national styles.

In the long historical evolution of seals, trade and cultural connections between Mesopotamia, Egypt and Indus River Valley 一 where the three main seal systems originated — brought about different degrees of mutual influence on their seal systems. However, as far as the stage of Birth is concerned, there is insufficient evidence to prove that these seal systems spread to China during the stage when Chinese seals were beginning to take shape. The Chinese seal system emerged independently of other systems. Later it spread to and influenced adjacent regions, thereby gradually expanding the realm of seal culture.

Despite having common functions and properties, East Asian seals originating in China differ in many respects from other early seal systems. The religious amulet function of the seals in the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India was generally obvious in their use and form. In some regions, a significant proportion of the seals were used as jewelry. As for the seals in ancient China, only special seals used in Taoism and the later arrival Buddhism had the function of religious amulets. Common official and private seals had no such significance. Their nature as a means of authentication was definite.

Moreover, when ancient Chinese seals were used as ornaments, their appearance underwent embellishment but without their functions and characteristics being changed. They were not treated as jewelry.

Furthermore, ancient Chinese seals were also different from insignia badges as regards identifying a person. Among Chinese seals, official seals were particularly valued for their political role and, therefore, carried many complex and specific functions. Chinese seals also differed greatly from ancient seals in other regions as regards their focus on artistic presentation: these seals were made with the aim of rendering the Chinese characters as art. In the creation of these seals, all aspects — the writing of the characters, layout, casting or engraving — focus on the abstract presentation of the structure, lines, and strokes of characters. When images were involved, freehand or hyperbolic style predominated. Therefore, the form and nature of Chinese seals followed an independent course of development.

Properties and Forms of Chinese Seals

Seen in the broad context of world seal history, seals might have emerged in China slightly later than in other early civilizations such as Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. However, once they did appear here, seals as a means of authentication developed in quite a distinct direction. The seal system of ancient China came into being and became mature fairly early in the civilizations of the world.

1, Forms of Chinese Seals

One of the characteristics that distinguish Chinese seals from that of other regions is that the use and evolution of Chinese seals continued without any disruption for nearly 3,000 years after the emergence of their early forms. The stability of their fundamental functions and form standards were successfully retained for a long historical period.

Therefore, to study and understand the Chinese seal system one must start with its forms. Chinese seals express Chinese characters or graphics. The basic method of seal used in the earlier period was as a mark of authentication on pottery and sealing clay.

Therefore, the basic elements of ancient Chinese seals include seal knobs (印纽) that could be gripped in hand and threaded through with a ribbon. This element, initially of purely practical significance, gradually developed other meanings related to esthetic appreciation, symbolism, and signification of status in the social hierarchy. In the pre-Qin Dynasty times, the form systems of official and private seals had already taken divergent paths. The evolution of the forms of seals can be seen most clearly from how their seal knobs evolved. The knob forms of ancient seals can be divided into two typologies: namely the Warring States, Qin (221 B.C.-206 B.C.) and Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) seal system; and the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) seal system.

2, The Warring States, Qin, and Han Seal System Knob Forms

The fundamental characteristics of knob forms in this seal system are that they match the body of the seal and have a small hole through them. Within this system, knob forms evolved in an orderly fashion along with the advancement of the times. The official seal system played a role of guidance and restraint in the evolution of seal knobs. The knob forms of this seal system include:

Nose knob (鼻纽) Official and private seals of this period were generally made with this type of knob. It continued to be used until the Wei (220-265) and Jin (265-420) dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasty (420- 589). One form that evolved from the nose knob resembled a tile covering and had a larger hole in it; its somewhat figurative name was the Tile Knob (瓦担)• The nose knobs referred to in Han and Wei writings include both forms. Later Chinese referred to a knob of this type with a broader top as a Bridge Knob (桥纽)

Inverted Dou knob (覆斗扭）This knob looks like an inverted Dou — a measurement instrument in ancient China. It is a knob form special to jade seals from the Warring States Period up to the Han Dynasty. (Fig. 5) This form is of a solemn and composed style. It may be a simplified version of pre-Qin nose knobs generated by the special properties of the jade material.

Turtle knob (电钮) This form first appeared in the Qin Kingdom official seal system during the Warring States Period. A hole was made under the belly of the turtle figure. This form represents a transition between the practical form and symbolic and ornamental forms. It was used for a long period in history. The turtle was regarded as an auspicious symbol because of its longevity. In the Han Dynasty, the turtle was worshipped together with the dragon, tiger, and Phoenix as the “Four Spirit Creatures, representing the gods of the four directions of east, south, west, and north. It was pointed out by Ying Shao of the Eastern Han Dynasty in his Official Rituals and Formalities of the Han Dynasty (汉官仪) that the choice of the turtle knob for official seals symbolized the manner of restraint; a turtle could retreat into its shell at any time, and an imperial official should act likewise to show his modesty after having accomplished a task. The turtle knob was also common among private seals during the period of the Qin and Han dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasty.

Snake knob (蛇钮) In ancient Chinese mythology dragons and snakes were considered as belonging to the same family, and both were regarded as auspicious. In the Classic of Mountains and Seas (山海经) it is said that the great emperors Yao, Ku and Shun were buried in the mountains and that guardian snakes crawled on their tombs. The snake was also the totem of some agricultural ethnic groups in ancient southern China. On bronzes of the Dian Kingdom, the snake is a common theme. Besides appearing on the Qin Dynasty seals, official seals conferred by the imperial court of the Han and Jin dynasties to minority ethnic groups also had this form of a knob.

Fish knob (鱼钮) One of the knob forms of seals of the Nan Yue Kingdom in the Qin and Western Han (206 B.C.- 25 A.D.) dynasties but it was popular only for a short period.

Camel knob, horse knob and sheep knob (驼钮 马钮 羊钮）From the middle of the Western Han Dynasty on, ethnic group signs were developed for official seals conferred to various ethnic minorities in northern China to differentiate them from the official seals used in the prefecture and kingdoms of Central China. Camel knobs were used for the official seals of the Xiongnu, Di and Qiang ethnic groups. Horse knobs were used for the official seals of the Xianbei and other ethnic groups. Sheep knobs were used for the official seals of the Wuhuan ethnic group. These forms were used consistently and methodically during the period of the Han, Wei, and Jin dynasties. This indicates that there were certain implications in the knob forms of the official seals conferred to the ethnic groups by the imperial court of Central China.

Tiger knob (虎钮) The chi tiger (螭虎) knob was a special knob form for emperors and empresses in the Han Dynasty. The image looks like a tiger; in fact, it is a branch of chi dragon. This form started in the Qin Dynasty. In Records of the Grand Historian: Collected Annotations for the Imperial Biography of the First Emperor of Qin (史记.秦始皇本纪. 集解），Wei Hong is quoted thus: Before the Qin Dynasty, common people used gold and jade seals with dragon and tiger knobs, according to their preference. From the Qin Dynasty on, the Son of Heaven (the emperor) called his seal xi and had it made with Jade. None of his officials and subjects dared to use the same.” As a tiger is the king of all the furred beasts, so a jade chi tiger knob symbolized the supreme power of the emperor. The chi tiger figure on the imperial seals of emperors and empresses is an apotheosized one quite different from the realistic representation of a tiger on a tiger knob of private seals. The seals of high-ranking officials in the Ming and Qing dynasties also had special tiger knobs, but in these periods the imperial seals had dragon knobs, a more mystic animal, to symbolize supremacy.

The decoration of Chinese seal knobs started from an aesthetic perspective. In the pre-Qin Dynasty period and the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, the greatest diversity was evident in the knob forms of private seals. Various animals such as bear, dog, mouse, fish, snake, and bird became the themes of seal knobs. This demonstrates that society took a great interest in seal appreciation. The exquisite craftsmanship involved in creating a seal knob also reflects highly developed carving and casting techniques.

Special seal forms emerged one after another from the pre-Qin Dynasty period to the Wei and Jin dynasties. Among them were the double-faced ribbon-tied seal, five-faced seal, six-faced seal and two- and three-seal sets. This reveals that the makers gave as much thought as possible about the convenience in use of seals since these articles were worn and used every day.

3, Knot Forms of the Sui and Tang Seal System

After its reunification of southern and northern China, the Sui Dynasty (581- 618) implemented a series of major reforms to political and economic systems. The system and forms of official seals were also changed at the time. From then on, official seals were mainly the seals of government offices. These official seals developed into a modern seal system. Their knob forms were simplified, and the signs of rank attached to these seals were weakened. The official seals of government agencies were no longer worn or carried by officials, so their significance as personal authentication disappeared and their form evolved toward large-sized handled forms. This seal system existed throughout the middle and later stages of Chinese feudal society. The main knob forms of official seals after the Sui and Tang dynasties include:

Nose knob (鼻钮) In its early development stage, this knob form carried vestiges of seal system forms from the Warring States-Qin-Han period. It is a transitional knob form developed in the Sui and Tang dynasties. In the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127) it evolved into the peg knob (撅钮)

Stake knob (杙钮) This is a completely practical knob form making the seal easy to use. This seal knob, a major knob form of official seals, was used throughout Jin (111 5-1234), Yuan (1206 - 1368), Ming (1368 - 1644) and Qing (1644 - 1911) dynasties.

Dragon knob and Tiger knob (龙钮, 虎钮) The official seals of emperors, empresses and imperial families retained their divine and solemn style in this period. The form of the dragon knob was established with the imperial seals of Sui and Tang emperors. The posthumous title seal excavated from the tomb of Emperor Wang Jian of the Later Shu Kingdom in the period of Five Dynasties (907-960) and Ten Kingdoms (902-979) testifies to the existence of this seal form at this time. The seals of emperors and empresses after the Northern Song followed the same seal form, although in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties the form and decoration of the imperial seals of emperors and princes became even more complex and luxurious, incorporating as decorative as possible.

In the period spanning the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, within the popular vogue for simplicity, there coexisted two different trends, namely retrospection, and innovation, and there emerged some lively forms distinct from official seals.

In summary, the choice of the decorative figure for the knobs of ancient Chinese seals was not just for the beautification of the form; it implied belief, symbolism, authority, and other notions. The evolution of various knob forms was always governed by changes in the seal's social function and applications. There was never a stage of pure formalism in which the fundamental nature of the seal changed and took an ornamental direction. The fundamental reason for the continuity and full development of the Chinese seal form system lies in the long-term stability of the seal’s role as a means of authentication in society and the extensiveness of its applications.

4, Independence and Stability of Seal Characters

Another obvious characteristic of seals is that the characters were always the major means of signification, the script remaining relatively independent of forms, evolving only slowly and thereby retaining the continuous recognition of society.

The textual content of seals comprises two elements, namely: character form (字体) and script style (书体). Over the pre-Qin and Han dynasty period, the characters on seals gradually evolved into a special stylistic form, becoming a script subject to the provisions of governmental systems. For instance, in the early Han Dynasty, in the examination used by the Office of the Grand Historian to test students among the “six scripts” (六体书) was one known as Mo seal script (摹印章). Government regulations resulted in a long-lasting historical custom so that the Zhuan seal script (篆体) remained the basic script for Chinese seal characters for over two millennia. During this period, the Chinese characters also saw the evolution of different calligraphic styles; from Zhuan to Li (隶clerical script) to Cao (草cursive script) and then to Kai (楷 standard script), the process gradually petering out only after the Jin Dynasty. The scripts inscribed on seals did not change in line with changes in calligraphic styles in society as a whole. This, of course, had to do with the long perpetuation of a unitary feudal state system and cultural tradition. Besides, since seals carried a wealth of political, economic and cultural implications in Chinese society, they needed a stable form so that society would better recognize them as an important means of authentication.

In the history of Chinese seals, the evolution of the Zhuan script on seals started with the natural development of seal characters. Influenced by the evolution of Chinese writing toward the li script, the appearance on seals of Xiao Zhuan (小篆) script and Mou Zhuan (谬篆) script gradually developed into cursive styles.

The second cause of this evolution was the change in the seal system. A new system was established in the Sui and Tang dynasties. New seal scripts were also developed. After the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) the “nine-fold Zhuan style” (九叠篆) was created, followed by more and more styles. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, a variety of Zhuan styles had been established. These styles also indicated the rankings of official seals.

Another reason was stylistic variations developed for aesthetic reasons. Early in the pre-Qin period, a trend towards emphasizing the artistic nature of Chinese characters emerged in the area of calligraphy; this trend advanced persistently into the areas of calligraphy and sealed engraving. The “bird-and-insect” Zhuan style popular in the Han Dynasty and the “suspended-needle” Zhuan style popular in the Wei and Jin dynasties by creating new style variations by xiao Zhuan, enhanced the decorative function of the characters. The same intention drove many variations of the Zhuan style developed in later periods. This was another form of calligraphic art in seal text inscription but was not the mainstream phenomenon.

Moreover, when non-Han regimes such as the Liao (907-1125), Western Xia (1038-1227)，Jin and Yuan dynasties were established, words from their written languages were used on seals in styles resembling the Zhuan style of Chinese characters. These languages became new members of the seal calligraphy family.

Essentially, evolution and change in the character forms and script styles are both related to particular historical periods. They are also chronological demarcation criteria in the history of ancient Chinese seals. After the Sui and Tang dynasties, the styles of characters on official and private seals evolved along divergent paths: with official seals, the form became increasingly strict under the prescriptions of various systems; on the other hand, the seals used by ordinary people developed free, novel and diverse calligraphic styles. This was in marked contrast to development trends in the Qin and Han dynasties.

5, Expansion of Seal Functions

As both official and private means of authentication, seals had extensive political properties and social functions. The constant expansion of their applications also introduced a variety of cultural elements. The history of seals is one that involves all the processes in society, politics, economy, and culture. This is another clear feature of seals. 

The majority of Chinese seals were either official seals representing the power and status of office-holders, offices, and agencies, or private seals functioning as the means of identification and authentication of individuals. However, in the long development process of seals, certain non-authentication seal types always coexisted alongside the majority authentication types. Two factors account for this, namely the remnants of the primitive properties of seals and the constant evolution of their functions. This indicates the extended functions of seals in social life. The following types are just variations, but they carry much social, cultural and artistic information.

Seal with auspicious words (吉语印) Seals with words praying for auspice and blessing and expressing hopes for an ideal life emerged in the pre-Qin Dynasty Period. In the Han Dynasty, this form was often adopted for private name seal.

Motto seal (箴言印) This type of seal was carved with words of exhortation or admonition as a way of cultivating character. They were especially popular in the period from the Warring States

Period to the Qin Dynasty, showing society’s advocacy of self-cultivation of personal virtues.

Graphic seal (图形印) These, a type of folk seal in the Qin and Han dynasties, had mythological figures representing primitive worship customs and some auspicious creatures. There was a very wide range of subjects.

Special religious seals In the Han and Jin dynasties, certain instruments used by the indigenous religion of Taoism also became seals. These were used in exorcism rituals, for example, the “Seal of Huang Shen and Yue Zhang” (黄神越章)，which had very specific religious significance. In the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist temples also made seals. The Buddhist temple seals and the Triratna seal representing the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha were both used in the activities and rituals of Buddhist temples.

Another function of early seals that should not be neglected is their use as funerary objects, an extension into the afterworld of their function of authenticating an office-holder or an individual. People in the ancient world treated the dead as the living and believed that they would need a form of authentication in the afterlife. Also, in the period before epitaphs and epigraph steles became common, seals were also used as objects to commemorate and identify the deceased. Seals excavated from Qin and Han dynasty tombs, both those used during the deceased's lifetime and those buried as funerary objects after death, testify to this use. A batch of talc official seals of the Han Dynasty unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province, proved that funerary seals were generally used in burials in the Han Dynasty. However, after Wei and Jin, this practice gradually died out. Seals used for the funeral were rare.

Correspondence name seal (书柬具名印) The replacement of bamboo and wooden slips and tablets by paper 5ocu- menus and letters brought about the emergence of seals used to make imprints at the end of the correspondence. Different salutations on these seals were used according to the recipient, and also according to different stylistic genres. This reveals the emphasis among post-Wei and Jin intellectual classes upon formality and etiquette in correspondence. At the time of social turbulence during the Song and Yuan dynasties, sentences used in letters to pray for peace and to express a longing for one's native place and family were also found on seals, revealing a strong affection for family and friends. These seal imprints were predecessors of seals that had features of scholar seal engraving.

Collection seal, studio name seal (收藏专用印，书斋名号印）These seals were used to mark collected books or artworks and personal studios of scholars. They form a particular and special category. They have an obvious involvement with the life of culture and the mentality, but their authentication properties have become weaker and less clear.

The expansion of the functions of seals and their general and sustained long-term use brought about a comprehensive strengthening of the aesthetic significance of the parts of ancient seals. In the Yuan and Ming dynasties, the role of seals as a means of authentication had not yet come to an end. However, seal engraving, a scholar art, had already started to grow in this period. Finally, the connotations of the seal in the universal sense were replaced completely by one of pure artistic value. Although Chinese seals originated from the same background and starting point as those of the ancient seals in other regions in the world, they ended up developing in a completely divergent direction.

The Chinese Art of Seal Engraving

Scholar seal engraving is a form and development stage unique to Chinese seals.

Seals, originally used as an official or private means of authentication, gradually diverted from this function and evolved into an artistic, the creative genre of the scholar class, a genre containing words that expressed an individual's ideas, emotions, and calligraphy, the beauty of the characters' lines, and individual techniques. This is the essential feature of Chinese seal engraving and also the national feature of Chinese seals.

This the form did not occur in the development processes of ancient seal systems in originating sources other than in China.

1, Formation and Characteristics of Engraving Art

Seal engraving artworks resemble seals. However, the majority are no longer regarded as a means of authentication or as having a relevant social role. The main concern of the creator, owner (often the same person) and appreciator of such artwork is whether its artistic expression is perfect rather than whose identity its evidences. Therefore, the properties of the authenticating seal from which the seal engraving works originate were gradually removed and replaced. Artistic and aesthetic appreciation became the fundamental motivation in creating a seal engraving artwork; however, another feature of seal engraving pieces lies in their not completely rejecting their authentication role and being relatively free as regards function. From the Ming and Qing dynasties, seal engaged in making private seals for some groups in society. These private seals had the artistic style of a literati art quite different from the handicraft beauty of seals cut by ordinary seal makers. This is one reason explaining why the art of seal engraving artists also engaged in making private seals for some groups in society. These private seals had the artistic style of a literati art quite different from the handicraft beauty of seals cut by ordinary seal makers. This is one reason explaining why the art of seal engraving expanded out from the studios of a few personal hobbyists to spread more extensively among the scholar class. Therefore, while the styles of official and private seals as pure authentication gradually became formal and rigid in the Ming and Qing dynasties, by contrast, scholar seal engraving started to flex its muscles as a new-born artistic genre.

The development and evolution of seals into the art of seal engraving was a long, multi-factor process.

The use of seals by senior government officials and literati on their collections of books, paintings, and calligraphic works further expanded the functions and content of seal imprints. In the Tang Dynasty, a private and official collection of calligraphy and paintings became very popular, giving rise to special appreciation seal imprints indicating the owner of these works. Li Longji, emperor of the Tang Dynasty, pressed a seal bearing his reign title “Kai Yuan” (开元) onto his collection of calligraphic and painting works. Many in later historical periods followed his example. The calligraphy and painting theorist Zhang Yanyuan writing in the 8th century gives us several examples.

According to his Account of Famous Paintings in Past Dynasties: Introduction to Public and Private Seal Imprints Since Ancient Times (历代名画记•叙自古公私印记), famous collection seals included the Tang Dynasty seals of “Jixiari, (scholars gathering), “might” (private pavilion) and “hongtverT (literature displaying); Wang Yas seal of eternal Secret Treasures” and Ma Zong’s seal of “Book of the Ma Family”. In the Period of Five Dynasties and the Southern and Northern Song dynasties (907- 1279), the use of collection seals became widespread and rather popular.

In the Song and Yuan dynasties, urban commerce and the economy flourished, generating the need for credit and authentication in production and exchange activities and contracts between people. This function of private seals was once more recognized. The production of private seals thrived again in this period. Some groups of scholars adhere to their custom of seal use and this custom found new creative scope in the calligraphy and painting rather popular at the time. Marking one’s work of calligraphy or painting emerged as a new seal application. Among the eminent literati who imprinted their works with seals bearing their names and courtesy names were Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), Su Shi (1037-1101) and the famous calligrapher Mi Fu (1051 -1108).

In the Ming and Qing dynasties, it was very popular to have sealed with names, courtesy names, studio names and with elegant literary quotations. In the eyes of Chinese calligraphers and painters, the seal imprints on their works also served as decorations to help adjust the layout of the piece as a whole and to enrich its content for appreciation. The combination of calligraphy, painting and seal imprint gradually became a typical pattern in the calligraphy and painting of Chinese literati.

Later seals with lines of poetry emerged that could be used both for making imprints and for appreciation in studio life. A considerable portion of the surviving antique seals from the Song and Yuan dynasties are carved with sentences or maxims. (Fig. 9) Their themes reflect the interests and sentiment of the literati and combine with the script style and artistic the layout of the characters on the seal in a way that changes its esthetic function and cultural connotations.

The increasing individuality and diverse content of seals caused some Song and Yuan literati to get involved in creating their seal text design. This was the first step and primary element in seal engraving. Certain scholars and calligraphers at the time were regarded as being superb exponents of this step. For instance, Mi Fu mentions in the History of Painting (画史）that his friend Wang Xian asked him to write the calligraphy for a seal, and he sent it to the seal maker to get it cut. This indicates that regular seal making shops of the time could not satisfy the artistic requirements of literati.

The study of bronzes and stones, or epigraphy, emerged as a field of activity in the Song Dynasty. Also embracing the collection, study, and appreciation of ancient seals, the collection of seal imprints and compilation of imprint books opened the eyes of leading literati to the esthetic value of seals and improved their taste in how they used seals. It was natural to expect that the artistry of a seal should match that of the calligraphy and painting and the social reputation and status of a person.

Around the Song and Yuan dynasties, pyrophyllite, and talcum, which are not very hard, started to be used as a seal material occasionally. In the Ming Dynasty, it rapidly became popular, and the dominance of bronze as the main material began to wane. Soft stone materials were easy to cut, and the processes involved in making stone seals were much simpler than those for bronze and jade. This was an important condition that allowed scholars to make their seals and their numbers engaging in seal engraving gradually expanded. Regarding the seal makers’ artistic concepts and quality, this laid important cultural foundations for the separation of seal engraving from ordinary authentication seal making in society.

Stone seals were also introduced into the Ming imperial court. Many of the official and private seals of Emperor Xian Zong were made of stone. Stone seals also became popular among the populace at large. Seal engraving groups were first formed in the late Ming Dynasty in economically advanced places such as Nanjing, Suzhou and southern Anhui where scholars tended to congregate. These were new artist groups led by literati, and many of their members were seal makers with sophisticated engraving skills. However, the majority did not do this as a profession. The scholars engraved seals to express their ideas, emotions and esthetic taste. Seal engraving became popular all around China as another enjoyable and tasteful intellectual interest in addition to chanting Taoist and Buddhist sutras, reading history, poetry and essay composition, calligraphy, and painting. Seal engraving entered a flourishing period. The development of Chinese seals entered a period dominated by scholar seal engraving.

2, Aesthetics of Engraving Art

Seal the engraving was a conscious artistic genre. However, it still needed the form of seals for artistic expression. The artistic elements inherited from ancient seals were the foundation on which seal engraving techniques took shape.

The esthetic domain contained in the elements of the ancient seal forms are the basic laws and principles of artistic seal engraving; they also represented the ac-cumulated esthetic of Chinese cultural psychology. The seals of the Qin and Han dynasties were regarded as classic artworks by scholars. To learn from the styles and forms of the ancient artists was among the artistic aims of seal engraving at that time; carrying forward tradition was the most emphasized principle in Chinese classical art. Wu Yan of the Yuan Dynasty advocated the revival of ancient classics in the area of seal engraving and proposed the Qin Dynasty Zhuan script as the supreme artistic standard in writing the text. “Returning to the past” was the dominant artistic trend from the Sui and Tang on it contributed greatly to scholar seal engravers of the Ming and Qing dynasties recognizing once more the excellent traditions of the Qin and Han dynasties and borrowing from them in the text content of their seals.

Moreover, some late Ming Dynasty seal engravers also focused on drawing from many styles of calligraphy to further enhance the calligraphic value of their seals. They drew from bronze inscriptions and seal inscriptions in the Warring States Period, li official script and kai standard script. In layout and form design, the patterns and forms and also various esthetic categories present in ancient seals, such as the balanced composition, oblique and vertical design, solid and void elements, and complex arrangement of characters were accepted to create new styles of artistic expression. Artists in different seal engraving schools innovated the stroke forms of ancient seals, using a great diversity of individual cutting techniques, thereby establishing different cutting technique systems of contemporary style. Differences in geographic distribution and between the schools of masters resulted in different cutting techniques, which in turn gave rise to artist groups of different styles. Through refinement and interpretation, seal engravers of the Ming and Qing dynasties defined the artistic styles of ancient seals thus: uniqueness; elegance; masculine solemnity, restrained harmony; graceful purity, and composed modesty. Thus the further development of artistic practice gradually gave rise to the classic Chinese seal engraving theory, a system that includes as its basic elements seal appreciation, creative concepts, cutting techniques, and historical research.

Although seal cutting as a literati art grew out of ancient seals, literati seals had the new connotation which was essential for its further development. In this sense, seal cutting represented the start of a new form of Chinese seals.

Seal engraving as an art form and ancient seals differ in terms both of their content and external features. Words of a literary, philosophical and emotional nature are the main content for the text of a seal engraving, and there is greater freedom in the expression of cultural and humanistic spirit. The language theme expressed becomes part of the seals artistic esthetic. The strengthening of seals，expressive and emotional functions can be seen as demonstrating the emphasis on cultural and humanistic content in creative seal engraving.

The calligraphy, layout design and cutting techniques in seal engraving are aesthetic expressions of the pure art form. Seal engraving was gradually liberated from non-artistic constraints such as political and technological factors in the time of ancient seals, and become a conscious art of Chinese characters. They enjoyed relative freedom regarding content, a form of expression, personal aesthetic preference, and even size. Thus, creative seal engraving could fully stress the expression of the artist's personality through his calligraphy and cutting techniques.

The sides of the seals, which on ancient seals were simply inscribed with names, became a space for recording stories, interpreting and expressing emotions. This transformation from a production procedure to expressive artistic action is a complete departure from the associations and forms of ancient seals. Seal engravers realized that different scripts, cutting techniques, textual content, and graphics could all be used on the sides as a means of artistic creation. Thus the sides of seal become another opportunity for seal engravers to express their emotions and display their artistic accomplishments, and this further enhanced the appreciative value of the seals. The decorative traditions and material esthetic of ancient seals were absorbed and carried forward by seal engravers and connoisseurs.

During the period of scholar seal engraving art, new subjects and techniques were constantly being added; the art of seal knob decoration expanded, as did the range of available seal materials of excellent color and quality. This combination of factors, interacting with each other, brought about an enhancement in quality and richer aesthetic connotations. External features such as material and decorative figures became more direct and concrete, bringing seal art closer to the common man and making it accessible both to scholars and to ordinary people.

So, the beauty of the Zhuan script characters and the sides of the seal (not forgetting the literary beauty of what they say), of the knob decoration, and of the material all combined to form the inner and outer faces of literati seals, gradually creating a three-dimensional image of Chinese seals.

The humane image and individual charm of a seal engraving artwork reside predominantly in the creator, the user, and the creative background. The sides and words on the impression face often reveal the emotions of the creator. Bewailing the fate of a conquered motherland, heroically crossing a frozen river, on the back of a cavalry steed, the tears and joys of family separation and reunion, leisurely walking by a stream in woods, disillusion that life feels like a dream; and ecstatic abandon in wine and poetry, such are the experiences which an appreciator of Ming and Qing history or even a lifetime story of twists seals can share. Seals often describe a friendship, an anecdote, a and turns. This is the hidden secret that forms a close connection between seal engraving, a great art within the space of an inch, and the spiritual life of Chinese literati.

Therefore, like ancient seals, the seal engraving works of the Ming and Qing dynasties and of modern times are works of art with different esthetics and also historical materials of rich academic research value. The information about art, culture and thought in different historical periods that is condensed in literati seal engravings constitutes a unique value of the history, culture, and art of Chinese seals.

The history of seals has already ended. Seals as a means of authentication have also made a gradual exit from modern Chinese life. However, Chinese seals completed their fabulous metamorphosis before these changes occurred and started to advance in a new direction. The art of modern seal engraving has acquired more vigor and life as Chinas society, economy and quality of life improve and as the entire realm of culture and art is reinvigorated. There is greater diversity among groups of seal engraving artists, greater innovation in artistic ideas and philosophies, greater expansion of artistic style schools all clear evidence of modern seal engraving entering a new stage and indicators that modern seal engraving has surpassed Ming and Qing scholar seal engraving. Seal the engraving was conceived in the distant past, in the age of ancient seals, and will surely keep on moving forward, advancing into an even more distant future.

This is a unique phenomenon in world seal culture.