Chinese Religion

Buddhism

Buddhism is one of the great religions that shaped Chinese life and culture. Unlike Taoism, Buddhism was not a native tradition but originated in India and was brought to China by traders, missionaries, and travelers. While the Buddhism introduced to China during the Eastern Han dynasty (100 -200 A. D.), it was known only to the upper classes. Until to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 A. D.) that the Buddhism was spread among the ordinary people.

The Founder of Buddhism - Sakyamuni

Buddhism was founded in the 6th century B. C. by an Indian prince named Siddhartha Gautama. Brought up as a prince in a small kingdom in what is now Nepal, the young prince, at the age of 29, became discontented with his life, renounced his kingdom, and separated with his wife and newborn child for a wandering ascetic life.

After 6 years of struggle, then he renounced asceticism, he starts ate, drank and then sat underneath the Bodhi tree, vowing to remain there until he understood how to escape the cycle of rebirth. While sitting here, he got a revelation which he revealed to mean that he realized the truth of existence, and thus people can get free from the continuous cycle of new birth. Hence he becomes the Buddha, that’s means “Enlightened Sage”. Then, he spent the following 45 years to preach his ideas, set up temples, and teach his disciples.

He was respectfully called Sakyamuni (the sage of the Sakyas). In the centuries after his death (called the parnirvana, as he entered that blissful and unexplainable state called Nirvana rather than being reborn), Buddhism spread throughout India, Southeast Asia, and China.

During this time it underwent many rebirths, one of which was to divide into a number of different sects, based on different ideas of what the Buddha had actually meant in many of his pronouncements and on how to actually implement his plans. Eventually, these sects coalesced into three main divisions. Theravada (小乘佛教), Mahayana (大乘佛教) and Tantrayana (密教). Theravada became prevalent in Southeast Asia, Mahayana in China, Korea, and Japan, and Tantrayana in Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, and Manchuria.

The Doctrines of Buddhism

The basic ideas of Buddhism are expressed in the formula of the Four Noble Truths (四谛), and the eight-fold Path (八正道). The four Truths are: Suffering exists as an inescapable part of life, suffering has a cause, that cause is a desire for things to be different than they are, and this suffering can be eliminated with the elimination of desire. Desire can be eliminated by following the eightfold path; practicing Ethical Conduct (right speech, livelihood, and actions), Wisdom (right views and intentions) and Mental Development ( right effort, mindfulness, and concentration). In its original formulation, practicing these 8 virtues could result in one having the same awakening to the real facts of life as the Buddha had, and would result in one escaping the cycle of rebirth by eliminating that which caused one to be reborn, one’s Karma (业).

Karma is from Indian, that means activity. It came to imply that each activity or thought produces impacts and these impacts incite one towards another resurrection after death. Buddhism reinterpreted the possibility of Karma to mean the impacts of want: that is, any activity in which selfish desire was available would bring about karmic gatherings and consequently, resurrection. The objective at that point was to live in this world and act without want; the best approach to do this was by following Buddha's 8-overlap way. When want was disposed of, one would carry on of unadulterated intentions free from stress or want for a specific result for oneself; the greater part of one's activities would be absolutely benevolent.

In its original definition, and one which has been kept up by the Theravada Path, Buddhism was an individualistic religion; every individual was in charge of his/her own advance on the way.

It was felt that the ideal approach to eliminate desire was to enter a temple, hence cutting ties with the world, which produces desire; monks and nuns did no work and in this manner were upheld by begging and donations from the lay group to which they rendered administrations (therapeutic, soup kitchens, tree planting, and so on.). In any case, numerous individuals came to feel that this way was excessively troublesome and soon an "easier" way, the Mahayana or Great Vehicle, emerged. This way put more accentuation on the conceivable outcomes of laypeople accomplishing edification and in assistance along the way.

The individuals who gave help were called Bodhisattvas: "Buddhas to be". These were common individuals who accomplished edification however picked rather be reawakened to help others to accomplish illumination. Thus, they soon progressed toward becoming creatures to whom one could ask, for illumination as well as for help with numerous common exercises. It was the Mahayana form, with its adaptability and accentuation on lay life, that ended up common in China.

The Tantric form of Buddhism also became popular in parts of what is today China, specifically in Tibet and Mongolia. This Buddhist path arose in the 6-7th centuries and was an outgrowth of the Mahayana. It is based on additional scriptures called Tantras (密续), which posit a very direct way of attaining enlightenment, with the help of a teacher.

The Tantras are considered so powerful that they are not to be studied alone but only under supervision and thus are written in language that is mysterious and difficult to understand. They stress total involvement of the body, mind, and speech in the search for enlightenment. They emphasize the union of all things and thus often depict two aspects: a benign and a demonic, of the same person or event. Many particular practices arose in Tantric circles, most of which are still practiced in Tibet and surrounding areas today. Perhaps the most interesting is the idea that certain high lamas (a lama is a teaching monk) can choose their future reincarnations. Thus, this tradition has many “incarnate lamas” sometimes called “Living Buddhas” in the West. The 14th Dalai Lama is the most well known of these lineages (the 13th reincarnation of the first Dalai Lama, who in turn is seen as the incarnation of the Bociclhisattva of Compassion.)

Buddhism brought with it a well-developed series of heavens and hells and the idea that people could be reborn into 6 levels of being: gods, demi-gods, humans, animals, hungry ghosts and hell beings. All of these states were transitional and only in the human birth could enlightenment, the cessation of rebirth, be attained (in animal form, one is too instinctual; as a ghost or hell being, too miserable; as a god or demi-god, one is also happy to seek enlightenment; only as a human does one have the combination of intelligence and suffering to make one seek out wisdom).

Buddhism had a significant impact on arts in China, both painting and sculpture as well as on literature and music.

Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains in China

There are more than 200 mountains in China, which have associations with Buddhism. Among them are the famous Buddhism’s Four Mountain Sanctuaries. They are the domains of Buddhism's four most venerated BodhiSclttvas.

Mount Wutai (五台山)of Shanxi Province is the domain of Manjusri (文殊菩萨) or the Universal Great Wisdom Bodhisattva. Mount Emei (峨嵋山) of Sichuan Province is the domain of Samantabhadra (普贤菩萨) or Bodhisattva of Universal Benevolence (Universal Worthy Great Conduct Bodhisattva). Mount Putuo (普陀山)of Zhejiang Province is the domain of Avalokitesvara (观音菩) or Guan Shi Yin Great Compassion Bodhisattva ( Goddess of Mercy). Mount Jiuhua (九华山)of Anhui Province is the domain of Ksitigarbha (地藏菩萨) or Earth Treasury King Great Vow Bodhisattva (Guardian of the Earth).

In the course of the spread of Buddhism in China, worships of the Bodhisattvas gradually emerged. Specifically, according to Buddhist legends, these four Bodhisattvas descended upon this mundane world with the task of delivering the multitude to another world. They established themselves in these mountains (their related domains) to preach their doctrines, thus helping establish the position of the four mountains as the Buddhist sanctuaries in China.

These four Buddhist mountain sanctuaries are endowed with a revered history of Buddhist cultural legacy, with treasures of Buddhist art and cultural relics. Here, one can always hear the Buddhist music and incantations and smell the burning incense. The noble images of the mountains soaring over the mortal world and into the blue sky act as symbols of the Buddhist belief in rebirth and introvert meditation. The clean and profound environment of the mountains is an expression of the Buddhist outlook of the simple life, and the solitude of the mountain sanctuaries symbolize the Buddhist philosophy.

Taoism

Like Confucianism, Taoism is a native Chinese tradition that is both a philosophy and a religion. In its philosophical mode, it became the preserve of the educated elite, of poets and administrators, of the retired and those experiencing difficulties in life.

The Rise of Taoism as a Form of Religion

Taoism, however, did not remain a philosophy for the elite. It soon became a wide-ranging and complex religious system with mass appeal. Some of the changes were spontaneous in reaction to changing social and political conditions; others were in direct reference to the threat to Taoism posed by a well-organized Buddhism entering China. In the 2nd century A. D. , the ruling dynasty, the Han, was in severe decline and chaos was erupting throughout the country, with bandits, rebels, invasions, misery, and poverty increases. A number of large-scale messianic religious movements arose, the most important being a Salvationist Taoist society, the Way of the Celestial Masters (天师道) in the Western Part of China. The founder of this group, Zhang Daoling (张道陵), believed that he had received direct revelations from Laozi, who will become deified as Lord Lao. This group was a mutual assistance community, in which people paid yearly tithes into a common treasury and in return received both financial and psychological aid. Healing was an essential part of the program, and the picture of Zhang Daoling on a white tiger came to be a symbol of healing. The group practiced the confession of misdeeds, in which these were written on paper and presented to one of the three lords of earth, water, or heaven (and buried, placed in streams, or burned); it was believed that misdeeds caused hardships and these confessions would ensure good fortune.

From this beginning, Taoism grew and expanded with a number of other revelations occurring over the next several centuries and a number of different sects being formed. In all of these sects, similar ideas and rituals predominated; each had its own lineage of leaders, descended from a common founder, either through blood or through ordination ceremonies. In all Taoist activities, the ritual was essential as a primary means of dealing with transition periods, such as birth and death. Implements were used in these rituals, including incense burners which carried messages to the gods in Heaven through the smoke; swords were used for both purification and exorcism. The robes and hats worn by the priest were covered with images symbolizing power over the cosmos. Scriptures multiplied with each revelation, some of which were “discovered” and others of which were “dictated. ”

As Taoism progressed, a pantheon of deities was created. These deities are of two kinds. The first was a group of “Celestial worthies" who were formed spontaneously from primordial energy at the beginning of the world. These are the supreme deities; each holds court in a celestial paradise and is supported by a hierarchy of lesser gods. By the 7th century, they were consolidated into a well-defined pantheon. The chief of these gods is the “Three Purities (三清神,即元始天尊,灵宝天尊和道德天尊)” and the “Three Officials (三官大帝)” who can only be contacted through written requests by Taoist priests, who thus become essential mediators between people and these gods.

The second category of Taoist deities consists of “immortals”, human beings who have purified themselves of mortal imperfections and become gods.

The various means of doing this: study, self-discipline, dietary restrictions, alchemy, yoga exercises,etc., form a large part of Taoist writings and actions. To enable humans to become immortals was the ultimate goal of most Taoist spiritual practices. The most famous was the “Eight Immortals (八仙)” a group of 7 men and 1 woman who became patriarchs of the complete Realization sect of Taoism which developed in the 14th century. These immortals inhabited places on earth as well as in heaven, especially mountains or caves. Most mountains are sacred in China, but five of them ( called the 5 sacred mountains) located in the East, South, West, North, and Center of China (the 5 directions) were directly linked to heaven.

Women play an essential role in Taoism: as teachers who influenced its development, as practitioners in its rituals, and as goddesses, the embodiment of feminine (Yin) energy. The most famous of these immortal goddesses is the Queen mother of the West, who inhabits a mountain in the Kunlun range and teaches the arts of immortality. One of the oldest goddesses in China, she pre-dates Taoism, which adopted her, and she guards the garden containing the peaches of immortality; these peaches mature every 3,000 years; to find the garden and eat these peaches guarantees immortality. She was the head of a vast pantheon of goddesses. Mortal women were ordained as Taoist priests, and there are a number of records of Imperial princesses performing this function; they became religious instructors and scholars, founders of sects of Taoism and they could serve as nuns. Women had a vital influence on the growth of religious Taoism.

The Doctrines of Taoism

Communal religious Taoism is quite distinct from its philosophical counterpart. It emphasizes moral teachings and collective ceremonies. Good moral conduct is rewarded with health and long life, while bad conduct results in disease, death, and suffering in the afterlife. There is an array of gods who are administrators of the universe, of which they are apart. From these gods come revelations of sacred texts. There is an order of married priests who live in the communities they serve and perform exorcisms and complex rituals.

Folk religion Taoism is part of the everyday lives of the people. The gods are intimately connected with each individual ’ s life as bringers of calamities or givers of bountiful gifts. Each object of daily life has its presiding spirit that must be consulted and appeased.

All types of Taoism have in common the quest for a harmonious, well-ordered universe. They emphasize the individual’s and the group’s need for unity through mysticism, magic, and ceremony.

Taoism: A philosophy or a religion?

There is some debate about a distinction between Taoism as a religious tradition and Taoism as a philosophical system. When most Westerners think of Taoism, they are often referring to the works of Laozi and Zhuangzi. These thought systems may be seen as philosophies rather than religions, as they include nothing within themselves about gods, worship or ritual. This type of Taoism is often referred to in Chinese as 道家, or Taoist Thinking” (thought, more literally, as “Tao specialists).

Another aspect of Taoism, more familiar in China or countries under Chinese cultural influence, includes worship of Laozi and other divinities, magic, alchemy, qigong, the perfection of immortality, and many other practices. This aspect of Taoism encompasses teaching lineages (where teachers pass on texts, rituals, and beliefs to select students), temples, and sects. It is often referred to as the Taoist religion, or in Chinese as 道教.

The relationship between the Taoist religion and Taoist philosophy is complex. One of the original founders of Taoist religious sects, Zhang Daoling, said he had received revelations from Laozi himself. Most Taoist religious sects hold Laozi to be at least a god, if not the highest divinity. Taoist religious practice often includes beliefs strongly founded on the Tao Te Ching. There are also hints in the Zhuangzi of immortality, a common feature of Taoist religious practice. Further, many Chinese traditional religious practices are considered “Taoist” even when there is little that specifically makes them so.

A clear and definitive distinction between that which is religion and that which is a philosophy in Taoism is difficult. Moreover, a clear distinction between ideas and practices originating with Taoism and those from other sources in Chinese culture is also often impossible.